In order to account for isotopes, the RS has the concept of a “gravitational charge”. The way it works is this: a magnetically charged, electron neutrino (which are abundant) is captured by an atom. The magnetic charge is transferred to the atom as a rotational vibration, and without the charge, the neutrino flies off into space, leaving the atom with an additional rotational vibration (magnetic), which is identified as a “gravitational charge”, having the equivalent mass of 1 AMU.

In Basic Properties of Matter, p. 262, Larson writes: “When the neutrino and the atom subsequently separate, there is a finite probability that the charge will stay with the atom.”

Some things to note, regarding the electron neutrino [M ½-½-(1)]:

1. The electron neutrino MUST be charged in order for it to be captured; uncharged neutrinos will pass thru matter, as they have no net displacement in either space nor time.
2. Larson claims the charge on a neutrino is “magnetic”, in other words, the charge applies to the ½-½ temporal displacement, not the (1) spatial displacement (which would be an electric charge). He just sites “probability” as the reason. But, by the same logic, the muon neutrino, M ½-½-0 could also take a magnetic charge.
3. Hydrogen, which is composed of a proton and a charged, electron neutrino [M 1½-1½-(2)], does not follow this pattern. If it did, the charge of the neutrino would be transferred to the proton, and the neutrino would leave the combination, leaving a proton with one “gravitational charge.” (If a sub-atomic neutrino can carry a magnetic charge, then so can the sub-atomic proton. Larson’s assumptions concerning “magnetic charge” do not prohibit this).

This brings into question whether Larson’s analysis is correct, concerning both the nature of the magnetic charge, and its transference to a host atom as a “gravitational charge”:

1. Muon neutrinos have not been observed to carry a magnetic charge, so something is preventing this particular combination of motions from happening.
2. Electron neutrinos, as evidenced by the structure and large quantity of Hydrogen in the Universe, appear to want to stay within the atomic structure, and do not pass their “charge” on to the host atom or particle.
3. There is no clear mechanism of “magnetic charge”, and hence “gravitational charge.” Like Larson’s electric charge, it is a vibratory motion, but how it is achieved remains ambiguous.

The Nature of Magnetic and Gravitational Charge

In RS2, we discovered that the electric charge was due to the capture of a photon by the electron, with the photon’s harmonic motion providing the vibrational component of the electric charge. If we carry this one step further, then the “magnetic charge” proposed by Larson must be the capture of some type of vibratory motion also. So how does the electron neutrino get its magnetic charge, while keeping the muon neutrino immune to it?

The electron neutrino is of the material type, having its magnetic displacement in time [M ½-½-(1)], and its electric displacement [M ½-½-(1)] in space. The muon neutrino has no electric displacement. Therefore, it is logical to conclude that the captured particle must either have a net spatial displacement, or be a cosmic particle. Since we cannot capture a particle with more motion than the existing neutrino motion, that limits the possibilities back to the photon group. In RS2, the photon group includes LF and HF photons, positrons and electrons (c-positrons).

It is observed that the electron neutrino breaks down into the muon neutrino [M ½-½-(0)] plus electron [C 0-0-(1)] (which is why it is called the “electron” neutrino). The carrier of electric charge is the photon, which can be carried only by the electron or positron. In RS2, the electron is actually a cosmic positron, not a material particle. That reduces the choice of the magnetic charge carrier to one: the electron.

The sequence of events to create a charged, electron neutrino work like this:

1. The muon neutrino [M ½-½-0] captures an electron [C 0-0-(1)] (space displacement of electron captured in time displacement of neutrino), producing an electron neutrino [M ½-½-(1)]. Note that these two particles cannot combine rotations, because one is material and the other cosmic, so they remain two entities; the electron sharing the time of the muon neutrino, and the muon neutrino sharing the space of the electron.
2. A photon is captured by the captured electron in the electron neutrino, and imparts its vibratory motion as a rotational vibration (as described elsewhere in the forum), adding the vibration to the entire motion—BOTH the electron and muon neutrino in the composite motion vibrate, the electron “electrically” and the neutrino “magnetically”. To clarify: the linear vibration of the photon oscillates the rotation of the electron, creation a 1-dimensional rotational vibration on the electron—the electric charge. The rotational vibration of the electron then oscillates the muon neutrino in a similar fashion, and when the 1-dimensional rotational vibration is imposed upon the 2-dimensional rotation of the muon neutrino, a 2-dimensional rotational vibration is created—the magnetic charge.
3. The charged, electron neutrino now has the vibrational mass to add “gravitational mass” to any atom that captures it.

Some other logical consequences of this compound, electron neutrino structure are:

4. Muon neutrinos are exempt from magnetic charge, because the charge actually goes on the captured electron in the electron neutrino, and the muon neutrino does not have a captured electron.
5. The magnetic charge from an electron neutrino cannot “stay” with the atom if the neutrino is not present. Only the electric charge as a captured photon within can. Therefore, should the neutrino lose its charge and leave the atomic structure, either a charged electron or uncharged electron/photon will be emitted along with the neutrino. In the former case, the charged electron will depart the atomic structure. In the latter, the photon will depart, but the uncharged electron, being a space displacement, will remain trapped within the time of the atom.
6. The gravitational charge within the atom is due to the presence of a captured, charged electron neutrino, not an independent vibratory motion.
7. Hydrogen, as briefly described above, stays together as a proton/charged electron neutrino pair without problems. The magnetic charge does not get transferred to the proton.

Isotopic Range

With this understanding of how isotopes work thru the “gravitational charge” created by the presence of captured, electron neutrinos, we can also compute a viable isotopic range.

The lower end of the range is the “neutrino-free” environment, which is composed of the atomic motions only, being the atomic number x 2.

The upper end of the range occurs when sufficient neutrinos are captured, that the net temporal rotation of the neutrinos adds up to more than the net atomic rotation. For example, the proton is the “basic” atomic rotation, and it can capture 1 neutrino, creating the aggregate motion we call “Hydrogen.” Should another neutrino be captured, the net temporal displacement of the neutrinos present becomes 2, which equals the proton [M 1-1-(1)], and neutralizes that motion, causing the atom to become radioactive to emit the excess motion.

Since it takes 2 electron neutrinos to neutralize 1 atomic rotation, the upper zone of atomic viability would therefore be the basic, atomic mass of 2×Z plus 2×Z-1 number of neutrinos: 2Z+(2Z-1) = 4Z-1.

Some conclusions from the isotopic range:

1. Hydrogen is technically an isotope of the proton, but because both elements are sub-atomic, the gravitational vibration influence is not measured but to a very minor degree. It is the electron within the electron neutrino that makes Hydrogen appear as a proton-electron combination.
2. Atomic number 1 must have a mass of 2, and is therefore Deuterium, with one isotope, Tritium.

(When dealing with radioactive decay, as in Tritium, one must include the effects of magnetic ionization, as Larson described. But that is another topic.)

Summary

• The gravitational charge is produced by the presence of charged, electron neutrinos with atoms (not an independent, rotational vibration)
• Electron neutrinos are a composite of a material muon neutrino and a cosmic positron (electron).
• The charge on an electron neutrino is due to the charge of the captured, charged, cosmic positron (electron).
• The muon neutrino cannot be charged, as it has no component that can capture a photon.